Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images
The Battle of Monte Cassino was fought between the Allies and Germans in the historic Monte Cassino Abbey, at the entrance to the Rapido and Liri valleys. The area was part of the Winter Line, a series of German fortifications that stood in the way of the Allied march on Rome.
The battle was waged in multiple stages, each more arduous than the last. The initial assault in January 1944 was met with fierce resistance from the Fallschirmjäger, resulting in a stalemate. It was at this stage that a group of Red Cross nurses sat to watch the fighting. They positioned themselves on a nearby destroyed building, which gave them the ideal vantage point – with the help of their binoculars, of course.
From the nurse’s position, Monte Cassino Abbey could easily be seen in the distance.
This stage of the battle wasn’t a success. In February, the Allies launched a renewed offensive, led primarily by troops from New Zealand and the 4th Indian Infantry Division. The Germans fought back, leading the British command to think they were using the Abbey as an observation post. This contradicted an earlier declaration that they wouldn’t use the building because it held such historical significance.
The Allied response was to use American bombers to destroy Monte Cassino Abbey, sparking significant controversy. Not only was there public outrage, but the Germans had never planned on using it for anything. Once it was destroyed, the paratroopers moved in, as it provided them with an exceptional vantage point.
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After over four months of fighting, the Allies finally took Monte Cassino – and the scene was in stark contrast to that the nurses had witnessed earlier in the engagement. When they stormed the hill, they found it had long been unoccupied by the Germans, who’d retreated to somewhere else along the Winter Line.
During the Second World War, the US involvement in the liberation of France stands as a remarkable chapter in history, serving as a turning point in the Allied effort to defeat Germany. Nothing shows this more than the above image of an American liberator being smooched on the cheek by an elderly French couple.
Following the successful Normandy landings on June 6, 1944, American troops, under the command of Dwight Eisenhower, launched a grueling campaign to free France from German occupation. They first moved inland to take the city of Caen, which provided them with access to many major roads.
The Allies were able to liberate many small towns along the way, but it wasn’t until after their successful taking of the city in mid-July that they really began their liberation efforts.
The American forces displayed unparalleled bravery and determination as they fought their way inland, overcoming formidable German defenses. With every hard-fought victory, the US pushed back the Axis soldiers, liberating towns, villages and cities across France.
Naturally, the country’s citizens were overjoyed, as they’d lived under German rule since they invaded in May 1940. Many, like the American liberator above, were given a warm welcome.
The photo was taken on August 8, 1944, although it’s unclear exactly where, other than a town beginning with “Saint-Sauveur.” Regardless, the lieutenant’s appearance was enthusiastically celebrated. He’s seen with a flower stuck in his helmet, something that wasn’t uncommon, as the French would throw flowers, wave flags, cheer and bring out the last of the wine they’d kept safe from the Germans.
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The gratitude was unparalleled, and when Paris was liberated on August 25, 1944, the country could finally begin to see freedom on the horizon.
Photo Credit: Sfc. Al Chang / US Army / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Above is a photo of a grieving American GI whose friend was killed in action (KIA) while fighting the Korean War. He was a radio operator who’d just learned his replacement had been killed, and he’s seen receiving comfort from a comrade, a man he didn’t know well. In the background is another reading through casualty forms to complete the appropriate paperwork once the fighting ends.
The juxtaposition of these two acts makes the image incredibly powerful. It was captured by Sfc. Al Chang, a US Army photographer, near Haktong-ni on August 28, 1950. Not only did Chang capture the emotional and powerful moment, he also had a noteworthy military career – in fact, he was a dock worker at Pearl Harbor when it was attacked by the Japanese on December 7, 1941.
Chang went on to enlist in the military, serving during the Second World War, in Korea with the 5th Regimental Combat Team and throughout the Vietnam War. In all cases, he was a photographer with the Army. His most notable works include the official Japanese surrender aboard the USS Missouri (BB-63) on September 2, 1945.
His photo of the grieving GI, however, is arguably his most famous photo, becoming synonymous with the Korean War.
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The image was featured in the New York City Museum of Modern Art’s The Family of Man photo exhibition. Some 503 images captured from around the world were featured in the gallery in 1955, after which they toured the globe for eight years.
Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
The Ryan FR-1 Fireball was an American fighter designed by Ryan Aeronautical for the US Navy during the Second World War. It was a mixed-power aircraft, making it the Navy’s first to have a jet engine. By the end of the conflict, 66 had been produced, with none actually seeing combat. The FR-1 only served for two years before being forced into retirement.
Desire for a ‘composite’-powered fighter
Ryan FR-1 Fireball at Naval Air Station North Island, California. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
In 1943, Adm. John S. McCain Sr. proposed the development of a “composite“-powered fighter, which would require a piston and a jet engine. Early jet power plants produced by the United States, Britain and Germany proved less reliable than radial engines.
On February 11, 1943, Ryan received a contract for three XFR-1 prototypes, as well as a single static test airframe, with the first two aircraft to be delivered within 14 months. The Navy was increasingly keen about it and placed an order of 100, way before it was even proven to be effective.
The Ryan XFR-1’s first test flight showed early issues
Ryan FR-1 Fireball flying over the Naval Air Test Center at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / Naval History and Heritage Command / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The XFR-1 conducted its first flight, without a jet engine, on June 25, 1944. This was followed by a second flight three months later. These confirmed what had been noticed in wind tunnel tests: that being the XFR-1 lacked longitudinal stability, due to a miscalculation of its center of gravity. The aircraft’s circular rear fuselage added to this.
To fix the problem, a new tail was designed with larger vertical and horizontal stabilizers. Early tests also found the double-slotted flaps to be less than satisfactory. However, before these could be changed, three prototypes and 14 production models had already been manufactured.
Several crashes during the prototype phase
Ryan FR-1 Fireball with Fighter Squadron 41. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The first XFR-1 prototype crashed at Naval Air Station China Lake, California on October 13, 1944. The accident was a result of the wing structure being too weak to resist compressibility effects. This was fixed by doubling the number of rivets in the other wing.
The second prototype crashed on March 25, 1945, when the pilot couldn’t recover from a dive from 35,000 feet. This, too, was likely due to compressibility effects. The third, unsurprisingly, crashed just under two weeks later, when the canopy blew off at Lindbergh Field.
Despite these losses, testing continued at the Naval Air Test Center at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. Further tests led to the discovery of additional problems: the engine overheated, the catapult hooks had to be moved and the nosewheel shock strut had to be lengthened by three inches.
With these problems fixed, the FR-1 Fireball was considered ready for carrier-based testing aboard the USS Charger (CVE-30). It conducted five takeoffs using the radial engine and another three using both types. No issues were noted during these trials.
In January 1945, contingent on the successful completion of the carrier trials, the Navy ordered another 600 aircraft. By that November, however, only 66 aircraft had been delivered. A few months prior, on V-J Day, the remaining orders had been canceled.
Ryan FR-1 Fireball specs
Ryan FR-1 Fireball’s engine layout. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy All Hands Magazine / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The FR-1 Fireball was a single-seater, low-wing monoplane with a tricycle landing gear. Its key design feature was its engines, being powered by a 1,350-horsepower Wright R-1820-72W radial one and a General Electric J-31 (originally designated I-16) turbojet capable of producing 1,600 pounds of thrust.
The radial engine was located in the aircraft’s nose, while the turbojet was in the rear of the fuselage, with air intakes in the wing roots. In an effort to create a simple fuel system, both used the same grade of avgas. Two fuel tanks were located in the fuselage, which could be supplemented with drop tanks.
The FR-1 provided pilots with excellent visibility, thanks to its large bubble canopy. It was also the first aircraft in the US Navy with a Laminar flow airfoil.
The FR-1 was armed with four M2 Browning machine guns, with 300 rounds each. These were located in pairs on the leading edge of each wing, just outboard of the air intakes. Four hard points were located under each wing and another two under the fuselage, allowing for various rockets, bombs and missiles to be carried.
Ryan FR-1 Fireball’s operational history
Ryan FR-1 Fireballs aboard the USS Ranger (CV-4) during carrier qualifications. (Photo Credit: Unknown Author / United States Naval Aviation / U.S. Navy / Naval History and Heritage Command / Department of the Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The FR-1 Fireball entered service in March 1945. Fighter Squadron 66 (VF-66), known as the “Firebirds,” received the aircraft, which never saw combat. On May 1, three were craned aboard the USS Ranger (CV-4). While seven pilots attempted to qualify on the FR-1, two were damaged upon landing when one missed the arresting wire, hitting the crash barrier, while the other’s nose gear collapsed.
Following the Japanese surrender, VF-66 was decommissioned and the pilots were transferred to Fighter Squadron 41 (VF-41), stationed aboard the USS Bairoko (CVE-115). The members of the squadron qualified on the aircraft. That being said, the FR-1 was still not without its problems. The addition of a steel fork on the nosewheel resolved issues with the aircraft’s landing gear, but wing failures were evident, and the FR-1 was limited to 5 g during maneuvers.
On November 6, 1945, an FR-1 was forced to land aboard the USS Wake Island (CVE-65) following the failure of its radial engine. The pilot made it with the jet engine alone, the first time an aircraft had landed on an aircraft carrier under jet power. VF-41 also suffered two fatal accidents in 1946. One aircraft collided with a target banner, while the second incident saw the squadron commander’s wing break off during a barrel roll, striking a second FR-1 and killing both pilots.
Retiring the Ryan FR-1 Fireball
Ryan FR-1 Fireball with Fighter Squadron 66. (Photo Credit: U.S. Navy / U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
VF-41 was re-designated “VF-1E” on November 15, 1946. In March 1947, the squadron conducted carrier qualifications aboard the USS Badoeng Strait (CVE-116), during which it became clear the FR-1 Fireball couldn’t endure repeated carrier landings.
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That June, VF-1E was deployed aboard the USS Rendova (CVE-114), which saw one FR-1 break in two after a hard landing. Due to its clear structural issues, the aircraft was removed from service on August 1, 1947. Following its retirement, all FR-1s were scrapped, aside from a few that were kept for testing.
Photo Credit: Georg Schmidt-Scheeder / Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-698-0038-25A / Wikimedia Commons CC-BY-SA 3.0 de
The Sturmpistole was a multi-purpose weapon developed for the German Army during World War II. A modified flare gun, it was capable of firing a variety of ordnance, with its purpose being to provide infantrymen with a lightweight grenade launcher, so they could engage enemy targets at greater distances.
Use of the Sturmpistole was ultimately secondary to larger and more powerful anti-armor weapons like the Panzerfaust and Panzerschreck.
Sturmpistole
Sturmpistole equipped with a Wurfköroper 361. (Photo Credit: Pfeiffer / Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-732-0123-03 / Wikimedia Commons CC-BY-SA 3.0)
The Sturmpistole was based on two German flare guns, the Leuchtpistole 34 and 42. Walther designed the former, which entered service in 1934 and remained equipped until the end of World War II. The Leuchtpistole 42 was intended to be a successor to the 34. Designed by HASAG, it entered service in 1943.
The Sturmpistole weighed 5.8 pounds, and had a barrel length of 7.1 inches. It could be equipped with different sights, depending on the grenades being fired, and had a folding buttstock that increased the weapon’s total length to 23 inches.
Multi-Star Signal Cartridge
Multi-Star Signal Cartridge. (Photo Credit: US Department of Defense / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Multi-Star Signal Cartridge was a non-lethal, breech-loaded signal flare developed and used by Germany during the Second World War. It contained a light inner alloy projectile, which held a total of three red and three green stars. On the exterior were numbers that allowed the operator to choose the combination of stars. By twisting the top, ignition holes were either opened or closed.
The number combinations used on the Multi-Star Signal Cartridge were as follows: 0-2 (three red, three green), 7-8 (one red, two green), 14-15 (three red, one green), 21-22 (one red, three green), 27-29 (two red, two green), and 34-35 (two red, one green).
When fired, the Sturmpistole‘s hammer struck the percussion cap, igniting the propellant. When this occurred, a delay pellet was ignited, which burned and ejected the stars when burned through.
Panzerwurfkörper 42
Sturmpistole equipped with a Panzerwurfkörper 42. (Photo Credit: Unknown / Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-732-0121-09A / Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0)
The Panzerwurfkörper 42 was a High-Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) grenade designed to be fired from a flare gun. It featured a cone-shaped nose cap and steel body, which tapered into a stem and rifled driving band. It weighed 1.5 pounds, and was 8.56 inches in length.
To load the Panzerwurfkörper 42, a rifled brass or aluminum shell casing containing propellant was loaded into the barrel of the Sturmpistole. The grenade’s stem followed, after which the breech was closed. When fired, both the explosive and the stem were forced out. It had a graze fuze that ignited once the explosive hit its target, resulting in the internal cone creating a superplastic high-velocity jet, punching through enemy armor.
The Panzerwurfkörper 42 had a maximum range of only 75 yards, and ultimately could only penetrate up to three inches of Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA).
Wurfgranate Patrone 326
Wurfgranate Patrone 326. (Photo Credit: US Department of Defense / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Wurfgranate Patrone 326 was a small grenade, with a base and four tail fins fitted into a crimped brass or aluminum cartridge. The explosive was light, weighing just 4.2 ounces. It also only had a length of 4.5 inches and a one-inch diameter.
When fired, the grenade was forced from the barrel, leaving its cartridge behind. After about nine to 11 meters, two metallic balls released the safety rod, arming the explosive. Once the target was struck, the inner casing moved forward, compressing the creep pin, striking the firing pin and igniting the detonator and TNT.
The Wurfgranate Patrone 326 had a maximum range of 300 yards, and it was considered ideal for direct firing.
Wurfkörper 361
Wurfköroper 361. (Photo Credit: US Department of Defense / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The Wurfköroper 361 used the Eierhandgranate 39, which was screwed onto a bakelite or wooden stem. At the base was a flash cap connected to a tube, which connected to a time fuze. Like the Panzerwurfkörper 42, the Wurfköroper 361 required a brass or aluminum shell casing with propellant to be first inserted into the Sturmpistole.
The Wurfköroper 361 only weighed 8.1 ounces, and it had a maximum firing range of 85 yards when fired at a 45-degree angle. It was used, ideally, when shrapnel would be more effective than direct accuracy.
Before firing, the operator armed the grenade. When launched, the explosive and its stem were forced from the barrel, after which the flash cap ignited the time fuze, resulting in detonation.
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The Wurfköroper 361 was considered superior to the Wurfgranate Patrone 326, although it couldn’t be used at a range less than 50 yards, as it meant the operator risked being hit by their own shrapnel.
Kirk Douglas is arguably one of the most famous names to emerge during Hollywood’s heyday in the 1950s and ’60s. Known for taking on particularly demanding roles and starring alongside some of the industry’s most talented, he made a name for himself with such films as 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954), Paths of Glory (1957) and Spartacus (1960).
Prior to becoming a big-name actor, Douglas answered the call to serve his country, enlisting the US Navy and chasing Japanese submarines in the Pacific Theater.
Kirk Douglas’ early life
Kirk Douglas at his university graduation, 1939. (Photo Credit: College Photographer / The Films of Kirk Douglas / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Kirk Douglas was born on December 6, 1916 in Amsterdam, New York. His parents, immigrants from the Russian Empire, named him Issur Danielovitch. He legally changed his name to “Kirk Douglas” in 1938, as he was beginning his pursuit of acting.
Douglas had what many would describe as an unhappy and turbulent childhood. His father was an abusive drunk who spent the family’s money on alcohol. To support his mother and siblings, Douglas worked a number of odd jobs, including as a newspaper delivery boy and a snack vendor at a local mill. He later revealed he held over 40 different positions to help make ends meet.
Developing an interest in acting
Lauren Bacall and Kirk Douglas, 1999. (Photo Credit: Steve Eichner / Getty Images)
Kirk Douglas first realized he wanted to be an actor in kindergarten, when he received applause for his rendition of John Clare’s popular poem, The Red Robin of Spring. He appeared in many plays during his time at Amsterdam High School, but paused his dreams to attend university, graduating with a bachelor’s of English from St. Lawrence University.
After he’d completed his post-secondary education, Douglas returned to acting, with his skills being noticed by New York City’s American Academy of Dramatic Arts. He received a scholarship, and met Lauren Bacall, who played a critical role in launching Douglas’ future Hollywood career.
Serving his country in the Pacific Theater
In Harm’s Way, 1965. (Photo Credit: Paramount / Getty Images)
Just as Kirk Douglas was focusing on his acting career, the Japanese launched their devastating attack on Pearl Harbor, which led the United States to officially enter the Second World War. While his fellow actors opted to entertain troops or film training films for the US military, Douglas knew he needed to do more, later saying, “I felt a wave of patriotism and a wave of Jewishness about what was happening in Europe.”
While he wanted to serve in Europe, Douglas failed the necessary dexterity test, and thus found himself enlisting in the US Navy. After taking the midshipmen course at Notre Dame, he was commissioned as an ensign and assigned to the USS PC-1139, a PC-461-class submarine chaser.
Under the command of J.O. McCormick, Douglas traveled across the Pacific as a communications officer – that is, until February 7, 1943. On that day, an enemy submarine was detected on PC-1139‘s sonar. A crewman was supposed to deploy a depth charge marker, but accidentally launched a live one. The subsequent explosion lifted the submarine chaser into the air. Douglas, thrown against the vessel, suffered abdominal injuries.
Sent to San Diego to recuperate, it was soon discovered that Douglas was suffering from a case of amoebic dysentery, which led to a medical discharge from the Navy. At the time, he was a lieutenant (junior grade) and the recipient of the World War II Victory Medal, the American Campaign Medal and the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal.
Kirk Douglas returns to his true passion: acting
The Strange Love of Martha Ivers, 1946. (Photo Credit: MoviePics1001 / MovieStillsDB)
Following World War II, Kirk Douglas returned to New York City, where he obtained acting roles in commercials, on-stage and on the radio. The latter saw him star in several noteworthy soap operas, and he saw the experience as invaluable. His stage debut was as a replacement for fellow actor Richard Widmark in Kiss and Tell.
Douglas was content with remaining a stage actor. However, Lauren Bacall had other ideas. She saw he had potential to star on the big screen and passed his name along to producer Hal B. Wallis, who cast him in 1946’s The Strange Love of Martha Ivers, which featured Barbara Stanwyck.
While he continued to star on-stage, including on Broadway’s Three Sisters, Douglas began to secure more and more film roles. His eighth movie, 1949’s Champion, earned him his first ever Academy Award nomination, for his portrayal of boxer Midge Kelly.
Becoming a major box-office star
20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, 1954. (Photo Credit: emesvau / Walt Disney Pictures / MovieStillsDB)
By the 1950s and ’60s, Kirk Douglas had solidified himself as one of Hollywood’s most sought-after leading men. He was known for diving headfirst into roles, meaning each performance was equally intense. In 1952, he received his second Oscar nomination for his role in The Bad and the Beautiful, and followed it up with the critically-acclaimed Disney live-action adaptation of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1954).
Douglas started his own production company, Bryna Productions, in 1955, under which he produced such films as Paths of Glory, The Vikings (1958), Spartacus, Lonely are the Brave (1962) and Seven Days in May (1964). As a producer, he was harsh with his actors and crew, but only because he set the same standards for himself.
In 1956, Douglas, yet again, earned critical acclaim for his portrayal of artist Vincent van Gogh in Lust for Life. During this period, he also frequently starred alongside Burt Lancaster, with the duo filming seven movies together, including Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), The Devil’s Disciple (1959) and Tough Guys (1986).
Kirk Douglas starred in several military films
Paths of Glory, 1957. (Photo Credit: CaptainOT / United Artists / MovieStillsDB)
Kirk Douglas starred in a number of military and war films over the course of his career. His first was the aforementioned Paths of Glory. Teaming up with director Stanley Kubrick, Douglas brought World War I‘s Souain Corporals Affair to the big screen. The controversial incident saw the French military court-martial members of the 21st Company, 336th Infantry Regiment, 60th Infantry Division after they refused to run into certain death on the Western Front.
Top Secret Affair (1957) saw him play the role of a decorated US Army major general who’s named the chairman of the Joint Atomic International Commission, while Town Without Pity (1961) had him tasked with defending four soldiers accused of sexually assault a young woman in occupied Germany after the Second World War.
This was followed two years later by the Korean War thriller, The Hook (1963). Based on a novel by Vahé Katcha, it saw Douglas serve as a sergeant with the US Eighth Army assigned to a ship serving overseas. A North Korean pilot is shot down nearby, and the vessel’s crew is torn between following orders to execute him or facing charges for disobeying instructions.
Douglas took on the US Marine Corps in the Cold War-era Seven Days in May, after which he brought Norwegian heavy water sabotage to the big screen with The Heroes of Telemark (1965). That same year, he starred in In Harm’s Way alongside John Wayne, a retelling of what sailors and US Navy officials faced during the attack on Pearl Harbor.
His final three war movies were Cast a Giant Shadow (1966), set during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War; Is Paris Burning? (1966), which takes place during the liberation of Paris; and The Final Countdown (1980), a science fiction movie that saw the USS Nimitz (CVN-68) travel back in time to when Pearl Harbor was attacked. Co-starring Martin Sheen, the latter was filmed on the real-life aircraft carrier.
Winding down his acting career
Greedy, 1994. (Photo Credit: movienutt / MovieStillsDB)
While Kirk Douglas continued to act into the 1970s and beyond, he did appear in less films. He made his directorial debut in 1973 with Scalawag, and in the 1990s starred in several smaller roles, including alongside Michael J. Fox in Greedy (1994).
Douglas’ final feature film was 2004’s Illusion, while his last on-screen role was in the television movie, Empire State Building Murders (2008). In 2009, he performed a one-man show, titled Before I Forget, which was later turned into a documentary.
Kirk Douglas lived for over a century
Kirk Douglas and Anne Buydens, 1988. (Photo Credit: Georges De Keerle / Getty Images)
For the most part, Kirk Douglas lived in relative health. However, he was involved in a near-fatal helicopter crash in 1991, and he suffered a stroke in ’96, which impaired his ability to speak. He also caused controversy in 2001, when it was alleged he sexually assaulted actress Natalie Wood in 1955. The allegations resurfaced in 2018, when he was honored at the Golden Globe Awards.
Douglas was married twice, with his second wife, Anne Buydens, having escaped Germany during the Second World War. While he wasn’t faithful to his partner, the pair remained together until Douglas’ death. They went on several goodwill trips to promote democracy, for which US President Jimmy Carter awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom, and spent the latter parts of their lives dedicated to supporting various charities.
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On February 5, 2020, Kirk Douglas passed away at his home in Beverly Hills, California. The 103-year-old’s death was never revealed by his family. He was buried beside his son, Eric, who had died just under 16 years prior, with Anne also being laid to rest alongside them following her death in August 2021.
Photo Credit: Willem van de Poll / Nationaal Archief / Wikimedia Commons / CC0 1.0
The M18 is a 57 mm shoulder-fired, anti-tank recoilless rifle the US Army equipped troops with during the Second World War and in Korea. The United States exported the weapon to various countries, and while it’s now considered obsolete, it’s recently seen service with the Syrian National Army during the Syrian Civil War.
Development of the M18 recoilless rifle
M18 recoilless rifle. (Photo Credit: Alf van Beem / Wikimedia Commons CC0 1.0)
As the US Army’s Artillery Section worked on a 105 mm recoilless cannon based upon captured German 10.5 cm Leichtgeschütz 40s (LG 40s), its Infantry Section was designing a smaller 57 mm recoilless rifle that could be easily carried and operated by just two soldiers.
The M18 was based upon the British 3.45-inch RCL. Instead of using a blowout plug like German recoilless rifles, the American design used cartridge cases with small holes in their sides and a plastic lining to keep the elements out until fired. To reduce friction upon firing, pre-engraving bands were used on the shells – a feature unique to the M18.
The M18 was nicknamed the “Kromuskit,” a play on the names of the two engineers involved in the weapon’s development. It was officially named the T15, and was first tested in November 1943. These trials found the recoilless rifle was superior to the 105 mm cannon being designed, leading to the latter’s cancellation. Before the end of 1944, the T15 was renamed “M18.”
By early 1945, over 2,000 M18s and 800,000 rounds of ammunition had been ordered.
M18 recoilless rifle specs
M18 recoilless rifle. (Photo Credit: Department of Defense / Department of the Army / Fort Leavenworth, Kansas / U.S. National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The M18 recoilless rifle was a fairly heavy weapon at 44.4 pounds. Its shells added an additional 5.3 pounds. The weapon was 61.6 inches long, and could be operated by one soldier, if necessary, but was almost always manned by two: a gunner and a loader. In addition to the M18 itself, the latter would carry a wooden crate containing the weapon’s shells.
Fired from either a prone, kneeling or standing position, the M18 was typically used with a T3 monopod and bipod or a cradle mounted on an M1917A1 machine gun tripod. To assist in moving the weapon, crews used a T27 cover with padded shoulder straps, allowing its operators to carry it slung from one shoulder.
By the end of the Second World War and into the latter part of the 1940s, the M18 fired various types of ammunition, including High Explosive (HE), anti-tank HEAT, Smoke/White Phosphorus and Training Practice (TP) rounds. A canister round was added later. With a muzzle velocity of 1,200 feet per second, the rifle was effective at 490 yards, with a maximum firing range of 4,340.
Service during the Second World War
M18 recoilless rifle on Okinawa, 1945. (Photo Credit: U.S. Army Signal Corps / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
The first M18 recoilless rifles were sent to the European Theater in March 1945. Soon after, they also began deliveries to those fighting in the Pacific. The weapon first saw action with the US Army’s 17th Airborne Division near Essen, Germany and with American troops in Italy’s Po Valley during the 1945 Spring Offensive.
The M18 performed impressively when paired with the HE round. The HEAT cartridge was slightly less impressive and was only effective at penetrating armor up to 76.2 mm at 90 degrees. This meant the rifle was less effective than other weapons, such as the Bazooka, which could penetrate up to 100 mm with its M6A3 rocket, and the German Army’s Panzerschreck, effective at up to 216 mm.
The M18 was most effective when firing at the rear of a tank. If used properly, it could disable a tank, after which a Bazooka team, anti-tank guns or field artillery could destroy the target vehicle. Despite these limitations, the M18 was found to be more accurate and have a longer range than the M1 and M9 Bazookas.
In the Pacific, the recoilless rifle was an instant success. First seeing action during the Battle of Okinawa, it made waves with its HE and White Phosphorus rounds, taking out the heavily dug-in Japanese. The only complaint from those serving in the theater was that they didn’t have more ammunition.
Service during the Korean War
M18 recoilless rifle in Korea, 1951. (Photo Credit: U.S. Government / National Archives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
When the US entered the Korean War, each rifle company had three M18 recoilless rifles. By this time, it was clear the weapon was too weak against the Soviet-built T-34 tanks, which were taken care of by the M20 Super Bazooka. That being said, it was reported that the M18 was exceedingly effective against enemy machine gun nests.
Following the Korean War, the US Army retired the rifle. Despite this, it was exported to the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, along with HE and White Phosphorus rounds and the NATO-standard M74 tripod.
Non-American variants of the M18 recoilless rifle
French soldiers equipped with the M18 recoilless rifle during the First Indochina War, 1953. (Photo Credit: Warner Pathé News / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
A number of nations, including France, the Netherlands, the Philippines, South Korea, South Vietnam and Turkey, purchased and used the M18 recoilless rifle. It was also copied by the People’s Republic of China and equipped as the “Type 36.” China supplied the variant to the North Vietnamese during the Vietnam War, and units were also delivered to Tanzania.
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The M18 was also produced by Brazillian manufacturer Hydroar in São Paulo as late as 1984. Most recently, the rifle has seen service with the Syrian National Army throughout the Syrian Civil War, which has been waged since March 2011.
Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Amid the bustling streets of Manhattan’s Union Square in World War I, an extraordinary sight met passersby. The USS Recruit (1917), a wooden landship constructed for the US Navy, stood proudly in the heart of the area. Although it may not have sailed the high seas or braved enemy fire, this unconventional vessel served as a training tool for new recruits and increased the number of men who enlisted as part of the war effort. It only remained in place for three years, but effectively served its purpose.
Conception of the USS Recruit (1917)
USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: Nicola-688319 / National Museum of the U.S. Navy / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
When the United States entered the First World War, the Navy needed to recruit more men. In New York City, Mayor John P. Mitchel pledged to recruit 2,000 new sailors for the war effort, but struggled to surpass 900 volunteers.
“The recruitment numbers in 1916 had been a major embarrassment to the New York City mayor at the time, John Mitchel,” Scot Christenson, the director of communications at the United States Naval Institute, tells The New York Times. “So he realized that if he could not bring people from the middle of New York to a ship, he could bring a ship to the middle of New York.”
Needing to spark interest in potential candidates, Mitchel devised a plan to build a wooden landship in the near-perfect likeness of active-duty battleships. Following the direction of the Mayor’s Committee of National Defense, the USS Recruit was built and “launched” on May 30, 1917, in the heart of Manhattan’s Union Square.
Sailors were stationed aboard the USS Recruit (1917)
Sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
As an article published in The New York Times on March 27, 1917 explains, “Measuring 200 feet from stem to stern and forty feet beam, the Recruit has been built to offer much-needed quarters for both the Navy and Marine recruiting forces.” A conning tower, two high cage masts and a fake smokestack gave the wooden battleship her realistic appearance. The vessel’s interior featured a wireless station, officer’s quarters, cabins and medical examination rooms.
One of the most integral components of the USS Recruit was that she was to operate as a fully-functioning naval ship – just on land, instead of in water. As she was a properly commissioned ship, she was put under the command of Acting Capt. C.F. Pierce, with a complement of 39 crewmen.
Everyone followed a normal routine. Sailors began their day at 6:00 AM, scrubbing the deck, doing laundry and performing other tasks expected of them. They also stood guard over Recruit, giving them a chance to interact with civilians. Her searchlights were turned on in the evening, making Manhattan feel like a great body of water.
‘Arming’ the land-based battleship
Grace Carley Harriman with Junior Naval and Marine Scouts aboard the USS Recruit (1917), 1917. (Photo Credit: Universal History Archive / Universal Images Group / Getty Images)
In keeping with accuracy, the USS Recruit was “armed” with weaponry that would’ve been equipped by other ships, just all of it was made from wood. She had three twin turrets containing six imitation 14-inch guns as her main battery and 10 five-inch guns in casemates, which served as anti-torpedo boat weapons. Two one-pound saluting gun replicas were also crafted, rounding out Recruit‘s overall “armament.”
At one point during the First World War, the Women’s Reserve Camouflage Corps painted Recruit, to give the vessel a more realistic appearance.
As Christenson explains, “For part of its existence, it was painted in vivid colors of pink, green, blue, black and white, in geometric patterns – squares and rectangles. That color scheme and pattern are called dazzle camouflage, and it was commonly used back then to help disguise the size, speed and distance of a ship, which is information a submarine would need to launch a successful torpedo attack against it.”
USS Recruit (1917) hosted social events
USS Recruit (1917) painted with dazzle camouflage. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Beyond her regular operation as a naval ship, the USS Recruit also allowed public tours. The public could walk around the vessel and get an idea of the kinds of activities performed by sailors, and they could also ask about the Navy itself. Allowing everyday citizens to immerse themselves in life aboard a battleship certainly helped raise interest in joining the war effort.
Recruit also served as a space for notable events in New York City. Liberty Bond drives were held aboard the vessel to raise funds for the war effort, and entertainment-oriented outings were held, as well, including vaudeville performances, dances and boxing matches. The ship even served as a set for the 1917 film, Over There.
Additionally, a christening was held aboard Recruit, as were patriotic speeches from organizations like the Red Cross Women’s Motor Corps.
Successfully recruiting new sailors
US Navy sailors aboard the USS Recruit (1917) in Manhattan’s Union Square. (Photo Credit: George Grantham Bain Collection / Library of Congress’ Prints and Photographs Division / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain)
Over the course of her time in Union Square, the USS Recruit did exactly what she was intended to; New York City’s original recruitment total of 900 multiplied drastically, thanks to the wooden battleship.
After several years of showcasing life in the Navy, the metropolitan area had managed to recruit an impressive 25,000 sailors for the service, enough to man 28 Nevada-class battleships.
USS Recruit (1917) ‘sets sail’
Dismantling of the USS Recruit (1917), 1919. (Photo Credit: Internet Archive Book Images / Library of Congress / Sloan Foundation / Wikimedia Commons / No Known Restrictions)
When the First World War came to an end, the USS Recruit stayed put for another two years. However, as Christenson explains, “By 1920, the United States had the largest Navy in the world in terms of sailors, and there was less of a need for them with the end of World War I.” As such, the ship’s flag was lowered on March 16, 1920, and she was decommissioned and dismantled.
At first, the city planned to rebuild Recruit in Coney Island‘s Luna Park for continued use as a recruiting depot for the Navy, but when the time came, this never happened. “The plan was to move the Recruit to Coney Island. But the cost of moving the ship ended up being greater than the value, so the ship was dismantled and the materials were likely repurposed,” Christenson says.
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Unable to justify the high costs, Recruit was never reassembled. While the exact fate of her materials is unknown, it’s most likely they were dispersed and used in other local projects.
Duchess Sophie of Edinburgh has recently spoken out against Prince Harry and Meghan Markle’s actions since their departure from royal duties. In a candid interview, Sophie expressed her disapproval, stating firmly, “They will not be accepted by anyone if they continue to be so toxic.” This strong statement reflects her unwavering loyalty to the Royal Family and underscores the ongoing tensions between the Sussexes and the rest of the royals.
Sophie’s dedication to the Royal Family has been evident since her marriage to Prince Edward in 1999. She has consistently demonstrated her commitment, participating in numerous royal engagements and supporting various causes. Her reaction to Harry and Meghan’s exit is rooted in her deep sense of duty and loyalty, which has been a hallmark of her royal career.
The Commonwealth Day Service on March 9, 2020, was a pivotal moment that showcased the strained relations within the royal family. During the service, Sophie and Edward were observed attempting to mediate between the Sussexes and the other royals. Body language expert Judi James noted that Sophie’s “cold stare or glower” towards Harry and Meghan was a clear indication of her disapproval of their decision to step back from royal life. This moment was a public display of Sophie’s true feelings about the couple’s actions.
The tensions continued when Harry returned to the UK for Prince Philip’s funeral in 2021. Unlike Kate, who made efforts to ease the tension between Harry and William, Sophie notably did not acknowledge Harry. This contrast in behavior further highlighted the rift between Sophie and the Sussexes. Her refusal to engage with Harry during such a solemn event demonstrated her strong stance and loyalty to the Royal Family.
The mixed reception that Harry and Meghan received at Queen Elizabeth’s Platinum Jubilee in June 2022 was another significant event. Meghan’s last visit to the UK for the Queen’s funeral three months later did little to mend the fractured relationships. During Harry’s visit for the Invictus Games’ 10th anniversary, he did not meet with any family members, as they were attending a Buckingham Palace garden party. Sophie’s actions during these events have consistently underscored her loyalty to the Royal Family and her disapproval of Harry and Meghan’s actions.
Duchess Sophie’s public statements and behavior highlight the ongoing tensions within the royal family. Her recent interview, where she affirmed that Harry and Meghan will not be accepted if they continue to be toxic, reflects her deep concern for the Royal Family’s unity and reputation. Sophie’s unwavering loyalty and dedication to her royal duties stand in stark contrast to the actions of the Sussexes, further emphasizing the divide within the royal household.
The retired soccer pro shares his four kids with wife Victoria Beckham
David Beckham and his daughter Harper.Photo: David Beckham/Instagram
David Beckham’s little girl is growing up fast.
The retired soccer pro, 48, shared a sweet black-and-white photo of himself and daughter Harper Seven, 12, on his Instagram on Friday, April 12. Wearing a suit and bow tie, the proud dad leans into his daughter, who wears a strapless dress and gives a soft smile.
“My little girl is growing up 🥹 boys get ready @brooklynpeltzbeckham @romeobeckham @cruzbeckham 🥊,” Beckham wrote in his caption, tagging his three sons. “@victoriabeckham good job mama 🤍.”
David shares Harper and sons Brooklyn, 25, Romeo, 21, and Cruz, 19, with wife Victoria, 49.
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In July, David and Victoria celebrated their daughter’s 12th birthday in the chicest way possible — with a trip to the Prada Caffè in Harrods department store in London.
“Harper Seven is 12!! (almost) @Prada party for Harper Seven💕CHIC!!, “ Victoria wrote on Instagram as she shared a series of snaps from the elegant party. The fashion designer tagged her husband David, and sons Romeo and Cruz Beckham, who also joined them.
David also posted several photos from the birthday bash as he celebrated his daughter turning 12. “@harrods Start of the birthday celebrations HarperSeven @prada,” he wrote one snap of the birthday girl. “My Birthday Girl” he captioned another photo of himself with the preteen.
In December, David took his daughter Harper to New York City, posing for photos at the Beam at Rockefeller Center, an attraction that lets guests recreate the iconic 1932 photo, “Lunch Atop a Skyscraper.”
Father and daughter also stopped for a bite at Katz Deli while taking in all the city has to offer. “Fun few days in NYC #HarperSeven ❤️,” he captioned photos shared on Instagram.
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